It is often difficult to learn a concept directly from the raw input data as much of the data might be irrelevant to the concept and the particular values of these irrelevant pieces of data can cause the learner to draw incorrect conclusions and make poor generalizations. In addition, the raw data might be of a form where the patterns defining the concept are well hidden. Thus, as a step prior to learning the concept, it is often a good idea to discover what part of the input data is useful, and now this part can be transformed so that the desired concept can be seen. Sometimes the original input data will be enlarged before the system attempts to learn to classify. This is the problem of feature extraction. The importance of this step in learning is seen in the fact that literally thousands of papers concerning feature extraction have been published in the last few years.
In this paper we will survey some of the recent literature to examine what methods are being explored.
Categorizing the work on feature extraction by particular methods is difficult. One reason for this is that in many cases more than one method is applied, such a performing a Gabor transform prior to finding features with a self organizing network.
In Handprinted Character Recognition Based on Spatial Topology Distance Measurement Liou and Yang tackle the problem of handwriting recognition where the strokes comprising the letters might be thick. Many algorithms for handwriting recognition will reduce the handwriting to a skeleton using thinning algorithms. This has the drawback that parts of the letters are often distorted this way, particularly in intersections, joints and ends of characters. In addition spurious pixels may be created. In this work, characters are represented by a fixed number of ellipses which fill each character. The same occurs with templates of each character and a distance measure is defined which allows the best match to be selected.
Question: In this paper the ellipses are represented as four dimensional vectors (x, y, r,
The character skeletons are found first, using the Voronoi method. The skeletons are regularly sampled to determine ellipse centers.
Of course feature extraction is often used as a prior step to classification by neural network but sometimes the neural network is used to find the features. In Decision Boundary Feature Extraction for Neural Networks Lee and Landgrebe expand on their previous work, Feature Extraction Based on Decision Boundaries and propose a feature extraction method based on the decision boundaries found by a neural network. They define a Decision Boundary Feature Matrix (DBMF) as
The steps in the algorithm are (assuming two classes):
Unfortunately this method does not have the advantage of reducing the dimension of the problem prior to learning the concept but might serve to reduce computational time if the final trained system is to be used frequently.
A case of using feature extraction to increase the dimensionality of the input is seen in Unconstrained Handwritten Numeral Recognition Based on Radial Basis Competitive Networks with Spatio-Temporal Feature Representation where Lee and Pan take written handwriting and add a temporal dimension.
A modification of Kohonen‘s original self-organizing feature map (SOFM) was proposed by Ritter and Kohonen in Self-Organizing Semantic Maps (SOSM). In the latter case the input data is augmented with class labels. In A Note on Self-Organizing Semantic Maps Bezdek and Pal argue against using this method, showing that the methods of SOFM, principal components and Sammon‘s algorithm (A Nonlinear Mapping for Data Structure Analysis, An Optimal Set of Discriminant Vectors) all produce the same results as SOSM, which is more complicated.
The same authors, in An Index of Topological Preservation for Feature Extraction propose a their own modification of Kohonen‘s original algorithm, and compare it with principal component analysis and Sammon‘s algorithm. The three algorithms are compared with respect to a property called metric topology preservation, which attempts to maintain pairwise ordering of distance. Of course Sammon mapping attempts to preserve all distances, if it succeeds with this it will also succeed with MTP. The authors show that Sammon‘s algorithm and PCA perform better with respect to MTP than the modified SOFM.
Self Organization was applied to classification in A Neural Clustering Approach for High Resolution Target Classification. The task was to classify five different vehicles based on HRR radar scans. A Self-Organizing Map was created as a first step. The vectors thus obtained were refined using the Learning Vector Quantization Algorithm. Classification of vehicles was then done using minimum Euclidean distance. Up to 97% classification accuracy was achieved, but it must be pointed out that this is only on the training data. No figures are presented for a separate test set.
A very similar approach was taken in Neural Network Based Cloud Classifier though this paper provides little detail, and only reports that "performance of the classifier is relatively good".
Without prior feature extraction, training a neural network to recognize objects can require very large amounts of labelled training data. In Distortion Tolerant Pattern Recognition Based on Self-Organizing Feature Extraction Lampinen and Oja propose a method of self-organizing feature extraction, which also requires substantial data, but does not require the data to be labelled. Often the data might be plentiful but manual labelling of it becomes very costly. Thus, in the next stage, the dimension of the problem has been reduced (using the extracted features), so a smaller amount of labelled data is required.
The system consists of three layers. The first layer performs Gabor transformations on the image. The second layer is a multilayered self organizing network (MSOM) which clusters the Gabor coefficients. The third layer is a supervised neural network which does the actual classification.
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Chulhee Lee and David A. Landgrebe. 1997.
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Chulhee Lee and David A. Landgrebe. 1993.
Feature Extraction Based on Decision Boundaries.
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Sukhan Lee and Jack Chien-Jan Pan. 1996.
Unconstrained Handwritten Numeral Recognition Based on Radial Basis Competitive Networks with Spatio-Temporal Feature Representation.
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Handprinted Character Recognition Based on Spatial Topology Distance Measurement
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