Class Structures in Postwar Europe
Rapid economic growth went a long way toward creating a new society in Europe after the Second World War. European society became more mobile and more democratic. Old class barriers relaxed, and class distinctions became fuzzier.
Changes in the structure of the middle class were particularly influential in the general drift toward a less rigid class structure. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the model for the middle class had been the independent, self-employed individual who owned a business or practiced a liberal profession such as law or medicine. Ownership of property- -very often inherited property- -and strong family ties had often been the keys to wealth and standing within the middle class. After 1945 this pattern declined drastically in Western Europe. A new breed of managers and experts replaced traditional property owners as the leaders of the middle class. Ability to serve the needs of a big organization largely replaced inherited property and family connections in determining an individual's social position in the middle and upper-middle classes. At the same time, the middle class grew massively and became harder to define.
There were several reasons for these developments. Rapid industrial and technological expansion created a powerful demand for technologists and managers in large corporations and government agencies. Moreover, the old propertied middle class lost control of many family-owned businesses, and many small businesses simply went out of existence as their former owners joined the ranks of salaried employees. Top managers and ranking civil servants therefore represented the model for a new middle class of salaried specialists. Well paid and highly trained, often with backgrounds in engineering or accounting, these experts increasingly came from all social classes, even the working class. Pragmatic and realistic, they were primarily concerned with efficiency and practical solutions to concrete problems. Managers and technocrats, of whom a small but growing number were women, could pass on the opportunity for all-important advanced education to their children, but only in rare instances could they pass on the positions they had attained. Thus the new middle class, which was based largely on specialized skills and high levels of education, was more open, democratic, and insecure than the old propertied middle class.
The structure of the lower classes also became more flexible and open. There was a mass exodus from farms and the countryside, as one of the most traditional and least mobile groups in European society drastically declined. Meanwhile, the industrial working class ceased to expand, and job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly. Such employees bore a greater resemblance to the new middle class of salaried specialists than to industrial workers, who were also better educated and more specialized.
European governments were reducing class tensions with a series of social security reforms. Many of these reforms-such as increased unemployment benefits and more extensive retirement pensions- simply strengthened social security measures first pioneered in Germany before the First World War. Other programs were new, such as comprehensive national health systems directed by the state. Most countries also introduced family allowances- direct government grants to parents to help them raise their children. These allowances helped many low-income families make ends meet. Most European governments also gave maternity grants and built inexpensive public housing for low-income families and individuals. These and other social reforms provided a humane level of well-being. Reforms also promoted greater equality because they were paid for in part by higher taxes on the rich.
The rising standard of living and the spread of standardized consumer goods also worked to level European society, as the percent of income spent on food and drink declined substantially. For example, the European automotive industry expanded phenomenally after lagging far behind the United States since the 1920s. In 1948 there were only 5 million cars in Western Europe, but in 1965 there were 44 million. Car ownership was democratized and came within the range of better-paid workers. Europeans took great pleasure in the products of the gadget revolution as well. Like Americans, Europeans filled their houses and apartments with washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, televisions, and stereos. The purchase of consumer goods was greatly facilitated by installment purchasing, which allowed people to buy on credit. With the expansion of social security safeguards, reducing the need to accumulate savings for hard times, ordinary people were increasingly willing to take on debt.
1.
►Rapid economic growth went a long way toward creating a new society in Europe after the Second World War. European society became more mobile and more democratic. Old class barriers relaxed, and class distinctionsbecame fuzzier.
2.
►Changes in the structure of the middle class were particularly influential in the general drift toward a less rigid class structure. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the model for the middle class had been the independent, self-employed individual who owned a business or practiced a liberal profession such as law or medicine. Ownership of property- -very often inherited property- -and strong family ties had often been the keys to wealth and standing within the middle class. After 1945 this pattern declined drastically in Western Europe. A new breed of managers and experts replaced traditional property owners as the leaders of the middle class. Ability to serve the needs of a big organization largely replaced inherited property and family connections in determining an individual's social position in the middle and upper-middle classes. At the same time, the middle class grew massively and became harder to define.
3.
►There were several reasons for these developments. Rapid industrial and technological expansion created a powerful demand for technologists and managers in large corporations and government agencies. Moreover, the old propertied middle class lost control of many family-owned businesses, and many small businesses simply went out of existence as their former owners joined the ranks of salaried employees. Top managers and ranking civil servants therefore represented the model for a new middle class of salaried specialists. Well paid and highly trained, often with backgrounds in engineering or accounting, these experts increasingly came from all social classes, even the working class. Pragmatic and realistic, they were primarily concerned with efficiency and practical solutions to concrete problems. Managers and technocrats, of whom a small but growing number were women, could pass on the opportunity for all-important advanced education to their children, but only in rare instances could they pass on the positions they had attained. Thus the new middle class, which was based largely on specialized skills and high levels of education, was more open, democratic, and insecure than the old propertied middle class.
4.
►The structure of the lower classes also became more flexible and open. There was a mass exodus from farms and the countryside, as one of the most traditional and least mobile groups in European society drastically declined. Meanwhile, the industrial working class ceased to expand, and job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly. Such employees bore a greater resemblance to the new middle class of salaried specialists than to industrial workers, who were also better educated and more specialized.
5.
►European governments were reducing class tensions with a series of social security reforms. Many of these reforms-such as increased unemployment benefits and more extensive retirement pensions- simply strengthened social security measures first pioneered in Germany before the First World War. Other programs were new, such as comprehensive national health systems directed by the state. Most countries also introduced family allowances- direct government grants to parents to help them raise their children. These allowances helped many low-income families make ends meet. Most European governments also gave maternity grants and built inexpensive public housing for low-income families and individuals. These and other social reforms provided a humane level of well-being. Reforms also promoted greater equality because they were paid for in part by higher taxes on the rich.
6.
►European governments were reducing class tensions with a series of social security reforms. Many of these reforms-such as increased unemployment benefits and more extensive retirement pensions- simply strengthened social security measures first pioneered in Germany before the First World War. Other programs were new, such as comprehensive national health systems directed by the state. Most countries also introduced family allowances- direct government grants to parents to help them raise their children. These allowances helped many low-income families make ends meet. Most European governments also gave maternity grants and built inexpensive public housing for low-income families and individuals. These and other social reforms provided a humane level of well-being. Reforms also promoted greater equality because they were paid for in part by higher taxes on the rich.
7.
►The rising standard of living and the spread of standardized consumer goods also worked to level European society, as the percent of income spent on food and drink declined substantially. For example, the European automotive industry expanded phenomenally after lagging far behind the United States since the 1920s. In 1948 there were only 5 million cars in Western Europe, but in 1965 there were 44 million. Car ownership was democratized and came within the range of better-paid workers. Europeans took great pleasure in the products of the gadget revolution as well. Like Americans, Europeans filled their houses and apartments with washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, televisions, and stereos. The purchase of consumer goods was greatly facilitated by installment purchasing, which allowed people to buy on credit. With the expansion of social security safeguards, reducing the need to accumulate savings for hard times, ordinary people were increasingly willing to take on debt.
8.
►The rising standard of living and the spread of standardized consumer goods also worked to level European society, as the percent of income spent on food and drink declined substantially. For example, the European automotive industry expanded phenomenally after lagging far behind the United States since the 1920s. In 1948 there were only 5 million cars in Western Europe, but in 1965 there were 44 million. Car ownership was democratized and came within the range of better-paid workers. Europeans took great pleasure in the products of the gadget revolution as well. Like Americans, Europeans filled their houses and apartments with washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, televisions, and stereos. The purchase of consumer goods was greatly facilitated by installment purchasing, which allowed people to buy on credit. With the expansion of social security safeguards, reducing the need to accumulate savings for hard times, ordinary people were increasingly willing to take on debt.
9.
The structure of the lower classes also became more flexible and open.⬛There was a mass exodus from farms and the countryside, as one of the most traditional and least mobile groups in European society drastically declined.⬛Meanwhile, the industrial working class ceased to expand, and job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly.⬛Such employees bore a greater resemblance to the new middle class of salaried specialists than to industrial workers, who were also better educated and more specialized.⬛
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