一．任务的定义
Skehan（1998）对任务有如下论述：意义优先、任务完成为主、评估基于任务完成与否。也就是说，任务重视学生如何沟通信息，而不强调学生使用何种语言形式；任务具有在现实生活中发生的可能性，而不是“假交际”；学生应把学习的重点放在如何完成任务上，对任务进行评估的标准是任务是否成功完成。因此，信息沟通活动属于任务范畴；而教师讲解、学生抄写的活动不是任务，而是练习（exercise）。任务与练习的区别可归纳如下：
| 练习 | 任务 |
侧重点 | 形式（form） | 意义（meaning） |
现实生活情景 | 无 | 有 |
评估方面 | 语言形式 | 任务完成与否 |
控制语言 | 严格控制 | 自由 |
教师纠错 | 立即纠错 | 先观察后改正 |
二．任务的结构
Nunan （198）认为，任务具有结构性，并由教学目标、输入、活动形式、教师与学生角色和环境五部分组成。
l）教学目标（goals）。任务型教学的目的主要是培养学生的语言交际能力，这不仅是指语法正确的说和写的能力，还包括社会语言能力（social linguistic competence）、语域能力（discourse competence）和策略能力（strategic competence）（Canale， Swain， 1980）。
2)输人（input）。输入是指“设计任务的资料”（data）（Nunan，1989）。输入的形式多种多样，包括报刊、小说、学生的作品、电视作品、课本、歌曲等（Gardner，Miller，1996）。
3）活动（activity）。活动是指任务，而不是指练习。
4）师生角色（teacher/ student role）。学生是交际者，其主要任务是沟通（传送与接收）信息，具有学习的自主性，并经常进行两人或小组活动。为了使学习成为交际者，教师应扮演助学者（facilitator）、任务的组织者（organizer）和完成任务的监督者（monitor），有时也加入到活动之中担当学生的伙伴（partner）。
5）环境（setting）。环境指课堂教学的组织形式，包括任务完成的方式（是个人操作还是两人或小组合作）和任务时间的分配，也包括课堂教学或课外活动等。在传统的外语课堂上，教师面对几十个学生授课，这不是任务型的教学方式。任务型教学通常采取小班制，，或进行两人（pair）或小组（group）活动的形式。
根据任务的结构，针对一次听力活动可以作如下分析：l）教学目标是学生相互交流信息，寻找主题或信息的组成方式；2）向学生输入的是该听力材料；3）安排学生之间相互沟通所听内容的活动；4) 教师是助学者和监督者；5）学生是活动中的主要交际者；6）环境是课堂的两人或小组活动。
三．任务型教学的步骤
Willis（1996）提出了任务型教学的三个步骤：
l）前任务（pre-task）——教师引入任务。
2）任务环（task cycle）：
a．任务（task）——学生执行任务；
b．计划（planning）——各组学生准备如何向全班报告任务完成的情况；
c．报告（reporting）——学生报告任务完成的情况。
3) 后任务（post-task）：
a．分析（analysis）——学生通过录音分析其他各组执行任务的情况；
b．操练（practice）——学生在教师指导下练习语言难点。
四．任务型教学与传统教学的区别：
1．传统教学多使用PPP教学步骤，即教师先呈现某个语言项目（presentation），然后让学生练习（practice），最后让学生用该语言项目进行表达（production）。在任务型教学中，呈现步骤没有了，练习似乎不重要了，但表达突出了，这样学生就增加了活动的机会。活动越多，学生可理解性的输入越多，语言习得就越多。
2．任务型教学步骤似乎是把PPP步骤颠倒过来，即学生先表达，然后练习语言难点。但是，PPP中的各项活动均是练习，因为教师在这样的练习中首先规定某个语言项目；而任务型教学的重点在于信息沟通，而不是语言形式。
3．在任务型教学的三个阶段中，学生都在完成任务；而在一节传统的英语课堂教学中，教师偶尔穿插一、两个任务。
五．TBLT教学技巧列举：
1．列举（listing）：Greedygumps Games
work in groups
The first person says the following sentence；
I’m so hungry! I have only eaten an orange today!
The second person repeats this sentence, adding an extra item of food.
I’m so hungry! I’ve only eaten an orange and some noodle today!
Everyone in the group repeats the sentence, each time adding an extra idtem of food. All the food items must be repeated in the correct order. Anyone who misses one of the items is out of the game. The winner is the last person left in the game.
2．排序和分类（ordering and sorting）
3．信息差任务：（information gap）
Happy Family work in pairs.
Read the following instructions before you look at the table below. Your school is doing a survey about people’s families. The table below shows some information about four students. It shows the names and ages of their grandfathers, mothers, brothers and sisters. The table is incomplete. Your partner has the other table. He has some different information about the four students .You and your partner have to ask each other questions to exchange information and complete the table.
The table for Student A:
Student’s name | grandfather | mother | Brother / sister |
Don | | Angela Lu (40) | |
Alice | Edward Zhu (62) | | Deborah (8) |
Jenny | | Mary Qin (46) | |
Derek | Thomas Zhou (69) | | Jane (3), Ben (5) |
The table for Student B:
Student’s name | grandfather | mother | Brother / sister |
Don | Adam Wang (64) | | Roy (9), Sindy (7) |
Alice | | Sharon Yang (36) | |
Jenny | James Lin (68) | | Paul (10) |
Derek | | Grace Liu (34) | |
e.g. Student A: What is the name of Don’s grandfather and how old is he?
Student B: Don’s grandfather is called Adam Wang and he is 64 years ld.
(Students B asks the similar questions to get the information of Don’s mother,etc.)
4．解决问题任务（problem-solving tasks）：提供学生一个问题和一系列信息，找出解决问题的办法。
5．作决定任务：
What things would you need to take with you on a camping holiday in a faraway area? In pairs, number the following items in order of importance. Be prepared to explain the order you choose.
a tin-opener, a torch, a tent, an umbrella, matches, a radio, a newspaper
6．观点交换任务：学习者参与讨论、交换意见、不必达成统一意见。（In every unit, the pre-reading provides such activities）
六．在设计“任务型”教学活动时，教师应注意以下几点（《英语课程标准》p29）:
1、活动要有明确的目的并具有可操作性；
2、活动要以学生的生活经验和兴趣为出发点，内容和方式要尽量真实；
3、活动要有利于学生学习英语知识、发展语言技能，从而提高实际语言运用能力；
4、活动应积极促进英语学科和其他学科间的相互渗透和联系，使学生的思维和想像力、审美情趣和艺术感受、协作和创新精神等综合素质得到发展；
5、活动要能够促使学生获取、处理和使用信息，用英语与他人交流，发展用英语解决实际问题的能力；
6、活动不应该仅限于课堂教学，而要延伸到课堂之外的学习和生活之中。
七．TBLT课堂教学原则
1．知识与技能并重，突出培养语言综合运用能力
基础知识指的是语音、词汇、语法等知识；而基本技能指的是听、说、读、写、视觉和跨学科等能力。注重基础知识和基本技能，密切结合“话题一功能一结构一真实任务”，培养“听、读”的接受能力与“说、写”的运用能力。
2．根据教材和课堂教学实际，适当调整教学内容
3．将更多的语言实践的机会给予学生，以学生为中（learner-centered），教师为主导（facilitator）
4．以任务型为主兼顾其它教学方法
5．积极加以引导，降低任务难度
6．重视学习过程，兼顾学习效果
7． 鼓励学生进行合作学习（cooperative language learning）和自主学习（autonomous learning），培养良好的学习习惯
培养合作精神to cultivate cooperative language learning
激发学习兴趣 to stimulate learners’ interests
强化学习动机reinforce / enhance learning motivation
养成良好的学习风格to form the good learning style
8．综合运用多媒体教育技术，增强教学效果
附1：任务型教学案例一（比较）：某中学一位教师的教案（删略部分细节）
JEFC Book 2B Lesson 82
1． Warming up
... (细节删去，下同)
II. Pre-task -- Do you know Beethoven?
T: Do you know the name of this piece of classical music? Who composed this piece
of music? Can you tell me something about Beethoven? I'm sure you can.
That's yesterday's homework.
(Brainstorming)
T: What's his nationality?
S: (German)
T: When was he born? When did he die?
S: (1770~ 1827)
…
III. Task one -- Fast Reading
1. Try to find the answer to the following question:
Where did Beethoven write his Moonlight Sonata? (at home)
2. Watch the video and try to learn something about the little girl.
Do the following true or false exercises:
(1) The blind girl lived alone. (F)
(2) The girl found it easy to play the piece of music. (F)
…
IV. Task Two -- Detailed Reading
Try to learn the details of the story behind the Moonlight Sonata.
Show the questions on the screen. Ask the students to read the text with the background music and then do group work.
Why did Beethoven stop outside a little house when he was walking in a street one
evening ? (He heard someone playing his sonata in.. .)
V. Task Three -- Practice
Try to retell the story based on the pictures and the key words.
(The teacher shows six pictures on the screen, and beneath each one there are some key words.)
VI. Task Four -- Consolidation
Do you know any other composers or musicians?
Play some CDs and ask the following questions.
1. "A Song sung by Lin Huan"
A. Who sang this song?
B. Do you like this song?
2. "The National Anthem"
A. W's the name of the song?
B. Who composed it?
…
VII. Task Five -- Discussion
Suppose one of your favourite singers is coming to Hangzhou. Try to write a letter to
him and ask him to give you a ticket to his concert and teach you how to sing.
VIII. Homework
Finish workbook exercises.
根据任务型教学的特点，重新设计该课的教学活动，则会产生完全不同的课堂教学活动模式：
Task: In the lesson, the students make a mini picture-story book.
Teaching aids: a set of slides and several sets of pictures about the story of the Moonlight Sonata; a tape recorder and some CDs.
I. Pre-task -- Collecting information about Beethoven and his music.
(The students are asked to collect information about Beethoven and some of his music before class.)
1. The students share their information in groups. (group work)
2. The speakers from each group give a report to the class. (class work)
3. The teacher plays some CDs for the students and helps the students to know something about Beethoven's music. (class work)
(In this task, the students will learn something about Beethoven and classical music, especially Beethoven 's music -- the Moonlight Sonata.)
II. While-task -- Dubbing and captioning a picture-story book.
(The teacher hands out a set of pictures to each group.)
1. The students in groups of six make up a story of their own about the Moonlight Sonata.(group work
2. The speakers from each group tell their own stories. (class work)
3. The students read the text and check their stories. (individual work)
4. The students in groups improve their story, or make up another story based on their understanding of the text. Meanwhile, they can help one another in groups, and the teacher offers help when necessary. (group work)
5. The speakers from some groups dub the slides. (class work)
6. The students in groups caption the pictures. (group work)
7. The students present their products; the class and the teacher evaluate them. (class work)
8. The students listen to the tape and read the text aloud. (class work)
III.. Post-task -- Making up a mini picture-story book about Beethoven
and his Moonlight Sonata.
(The students will finish the task individually after the class.)
l. Make up a mini picture-story book
"Beethoven and his Moonlight Sonata”.
2. Present the picture-story books in the next class.
附2：任务型教学设计案例二（听课记录）：Lesson 89, Unit 23, Book II
I. warm up:
1. Chant: I’m sure he / she…
II. Guessing games:
1) Show some pictures of famous persons and students guess who he / she is by using ‘I’m sure he / she is …’ or ‘I’m not sure. Maybe he / she is ….’
2) Guessing what it is using ‘I’m sure it is a / an …’ or ‘ I’m not sure. It seems a / an…’
3) What am I interested in?
Show a group of photos very fast and ss guess “What am I interested in?’ using ‘Are you interested in…?’
3. Survey: What kind of books are you most interested in？
Detective stories | Science fiction | Chivalrous stories | Folk tales | Classical works | Fairy tales | Biography |
| | | | | | |
4. Match the works with the authors:
Dream of the Red Chamber Hemingway
The Water Margin Lu Xun
A Journey to the West Wu Cheng’en
Call to Arms Mark Twain
Three Kingdoms Cao Xueqin
The Old Man and the Sea Shi Nai’an
Harry Potter Luo Guanzhong
The Adventure of Tom Sawyer J.K. Rowling
II. Read and act
1. Listen to the tape and find out ‘What is Mr Green reading?’
2. Listen to the tape and answer more questions.
3. Listen again and answer some more difficult questions (some from Ex. 1.).
III. Read and practise:
1. Read the dialogue together.
2. Replace the contents using their own favorite book.
IV. The best seller:
Suppose you’re a bookseller. Try to encourage people to buy your book. The following must be included:
The name of the book
The price
Who wrote it
What it’s about
Why it is worth reading or buying
Then the whole class choose: Who is the best seller? Which is the most popular book?
Group A | Group B | Group C | Group D |
| | | |
Book 1 | Book 2 | Book 3 | Book 4 |
| | | |
V. Discussion；
If you want to buy a book, which do you think is the most important? Why?
Content Quality Cover Price Writer
Popularity Press Discount Book pictures
VI. Homework:
1. Write a passage about a book (in 300 words).
2. Find more information about Bill Gates: his family, his childhood, his company.
