【世界决定视界】【视界决定世界】
what you see forms what you'll be
欢迎打开“我与我们的世界”，从此，让我们一起纵览世界之风云变幻、洞察社会之脉搏律动、感受个体之生活命运、挖掘自然之点滴奥妙。
我与我们的世界，既是一个奋斗的世界，也是一个思考的世界。奋而不思则罔，思而不奋则殆。这个世界，你大，它就大；你小，它就小。
欢迎通过上方公众号名称，来挖掘本公众号与大家共享的往期文章，因为，每期都能让你“走近”不一样的世界、带给你不一样的精彩。
本期导读：生物性别（英语：sex）又称生殖性别或生理性别，生物中有许多物种可以划分成雄性及雌性，不过也有些会是间性。
对于人类和其他的哺乳类动物，雄性会有XY染色体，而雌性会有XX染色体，这属于XY性别决定系统，其他动物也有其性别决定系统，例如鸟类的ZW性别决定系统，以及昆虫的X0性别决定系统。
生物体产生的配子由其性别决定，雄性产生雄配子（动物的精子或是植物的花粉），雌性产生雌配子（卵母细胞或是卵细胞），若一生物可以产生雄配子，也可以产生雌配子，称为雌雄同体。常常同一种生物的外形会因为其性别而有明显的不同，这称为两性异形，而性选择及生物择偶也会加速两性外形上的差异化。
社会性别（英语：gender）是一系列与男性气质和女性气质有关的特征，这些特征可以包括生物性别（包括男性，女性和双性人的变异状态）、以性别为基础的社会结构（即性别角色）或性别认同。
大多数文化与性别二元论息息相关，只有两种性别（男性和女性），对于处在这两者性别之外的，有性别酷儿。有些社会除了男人和女人外还有其他的分类（如：南亚的海吉拉），这些统称为第三性别。
社会性别是很复杂的，包含了无数外表、言语、动作等等各方面的特质。总体上来说，社会性别通常不容易作一个简单的分类，虽然社会倾向于假设有一个简单的二元划分。
性别义涵也是不断在进行重新调整的；比如说，粉红色在1900年代初期在有些国家地区曾被认为是阳刚的颜色，而现在则被视为是阴柔的颜色，且代表女性，而蓝色的情况刚好相反，代表男性。
性别这个词也逐渐演化成不一样的义涵：它越来越被视为是一种属性（就像颜色代表不同性别），而不是一种可以明确区分的本质。
社会性别指的是一个在社会中的人，其自身和其所处的环境对生理性别的期待。这些期待将在这个人的行为（以及环境中的群体的行为）中充分体现出来。比如，一个男性可能被教育成要具备阳刚特质，而社会中的人也会用这样的眼光去看待他，他需要具备阳刚特质。有时候，这样的看待会成为群体活动，比如，某社区的众人会对一个具备阴柔特质的男性予以鄙视甚至漠视。人们期待这样的男性能改变这行为。
英文中的gender是从古法文的genre演变过来的，意思为“东西的种类”。再往上追溯的话，则是拉丁文的genus，意思为“种类”、“物种”。英语中的Gender一词常常会被用来当作sex的同义词，指称解剖学上的生理性别差异，普遍用来辨别雄性与雌性。
不过在现代社会，直接以生理性别的意义来形容已经在减少，而因sex在英语部分，会容易被解作性行为及单指生理性别，现多以gender形容性别，以社会性别来称呼男性（Male，M）和女性（Female，F）。在中文语境来说，生理和社会性别的男性和女性意义大体相同，大部分人并不在意相关用词的区别。
Globally, women are younger than their male partners, more likely to age alone
全球范围内来讲，女性比她们的男性伴侣更年轻，因此也就更可能孤独终老
小编注：译文部分仅供参考；下面共享的信息摘自“皮尤中心”官网；本公众号更多“皮尤中心”、“全球观”、“男性”、“女性”、“两性”、“第三性”等相关优质文章，见文末“往期精彩”；本公众号共享资料下载方式，见文末注释部分。
Household living arrangements around the world vary by religion, according to a new Pew Research Center study. Still, certain broad patterns are true of women and men regardless of the religion they affiliate with.
据皮尤中心一项新研究显示，世界范围内来讲，家庭生活模式会因宗教信仰不同而有所不同。不过，大体来看，对于女性和男性来说，不管他们的宗教信仰如何，也存在比较特定的模式。
On average, women are younger than their husbands or male cohabiting partners across each of the six religious groups evaluated in the study – and in each of the 130 countries and territories analyzed. Women also are more likely than men to age alone and to live in single-parent households.
就平均年龄来看，研究中所涉及到的六大宗教群体里的每个群体中，女性都比他们的丈夫或男性同居伴侣，都要年轻，而且，该现象普遍存在于纳入研究分析的所有130个国家和地区。因而，女性也就比男性更可能孤独终老，更可能生活在单亲家庭。
Weddings at Ouagadougou Cathedral in Burkina Faso.
Here is a look at these patterns in more detail:
下面是家庭生活模式相关详细信息：
Across religions and regions, women are younger than their male partners
全球各个宗教群体、世界各个国家地区，女性比他们的男性伴侣都更为年轻
Muslims have the widest spousal age gap (6.6 years between men and their wives or partners), followed by Hindus (5.6 years), Christians (3.8), Buddhists (2.9), the religiously unaffiliated (2.3) and Jews (2.1).
Large age gaps are especially common in sub-Saharan Africa, including in Gambia (14.5 years between men and their wives or partners), Guinea (13.5) and Mali (12.9). There are much narrower gaps in European countries such as the Czech Republic (2.0), Slovakia (2.1) and Estonia (2.2) – though the United States and China (both 2.2) also are notable examples of small gaps.
Within individual countries, the size of the spousal age gap can vary by religion. For example, Christian men in Nigeria are 9.2 years older than their female partners, on average, while Muslim men are 13.0 years older. Nigeria’s population is about half Christian and half Muslim.
Older women are more likely to live alone
年纪大的女性独自生活的可能性更高
The pattern of spousal age gaps – and the fact that women tend to live at least a few years longer than men – helps explain another universal theme: Across the world, women are about twice as likely as men to age alone. One-in-five women ages 60 and older live in a solo household (20%), compared with one-in-ten men (11%).
While this pattern holds across all six religions evaluated, there are again differences between faith groups. Christians have the widest gap in rates of living alone (30% of Christian women live alone, vs. 14% of Christian men), though Jews also have a wide gap (28% of Jewish women vs. 14% of Jewish men).
The differences are smaller but still noticeable among the religiously unaffiliated (19% of women vs. 15% of men) and Muslims (10% of women vs. 3% men). Relatively few Hindus live alone, regardless of gender (6% of women vs. 2% of men).
By region, Europe and North America have the widest gender gaps in rates of living alone. In both places, roughly one-third of women ages 60 and older live alone (36% in Europe and 32% in North America), compared with roughly one-fifth of men (17% in Europe and 20% in North America).
The gaps are smaller in other parts of the world, including in Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia and the Pacific, the Middle and North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa, all regions where the rate of older women living alone doesn’t exceed 14%.
All 20 countries with the highest percentages of older women living alone are in Europe, such as Lithuania (where 50% of older women live alone), Denmark and Hungary (both 47%). Some of the smallest shares of older women in solo households are in Afghanistan, Mali and Pakistan, all at roughly 1%.
Rates of living alone over the age of 60 are tied to many factors, including cultural norms, economic development, levels of education and life expectancy. In countries where governments offer fewer retirement benefits or other support systems for older adults, families may face a greater responsibility to provide care.
Women are more likely to be single parents
女性成为家庭中单亲的可能性更高
Across the world, middle-aged women (those ages 35 to 59) are also more likely than their male counterparts to live in single-parent households.
Globally, middle-aged women are four times as likely as men to live with one or more minor children and no other adults (4% of women vs. 1% of men). The gap is biggest among Christians (7% of women vs. 2% of men). Gaps are smaller but still notable among Jews, Muslims, Hindus and the religiously unaffiliated. However, Buddhist men and women do not differ much on this measure.
These patterns partly reflect the large share of Christians in sub-Saharan Africa, where single-parent households are relatively common, and the big shares of Buddhists in Asia, where such households are rare.
In sub-Saharan Africa, 9% of middle-aged women and 2% of middle-aged men live in single-parent households, followed closely by North America (8% of women vs. 2% of men) and the Latin America-Caribbean region (7% of women vs. 1% of men).
Middle-aged men tend to live in single-parent homes at about the same rate all over the world and regardless of religion; any differences in rates of single parenthood affect women almost exclusively.
The countries with the highest shares of middle-aged women in single-parent households include Rwanda (19%), Sao Tome and Principe (18%), and Kenya (16%).
By contrast, nearly all the countries with the lowest shares of middle-aged women in single-parent households are in either Europe or the Asia-Pacific region, including Afghanistan, North Macedonia, and the Czech Republic, all at about 1%.
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