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Human skeletal system

The skeletal system includes the bones of the skeleton and the cartilages, ligaments, and other connective tissues that stabilize or interconnect them. Bones are the organs of the skeletal system, and they do more than serve as racks that muscles hang from; they support your weight and work together with muscles, producing controlled, precise movements. Without a framework of bones to connect to, contracting muscles would just get shorter and fatter. Our muscles must pull against the skeleton to make you sit, stand, walk, or run.

The bones of the skeleton are complex, dynamic organs that contain osseous tissue, other connective tissues, smooth muscle tissue, and neural tissue.

The skeleton has many vital functions:

• Support: The skeletal system provides structural support for the entire body. Individual bones or groups of bones provide a framework for the attachment of soft tissues and organs and muscles use to cause movement.

• Mineral storage: The calcium salts of bone are a valuable mineral reserve that maintains normal concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions in body fluids. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body. A typical human body contains 1–2 kg (2.2–4.4 lb) of calcium, with more than 99 percent of it in the bones of the skeleton.

• Blood cell production: Within certain bones, a connective tissue called red bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, a process called hemopoiesis. Red bone marrow consists of developing blood cells, adipocytes, fibroblasts, and macrophages within a network of reticular fibers. It is present in developing bones of the fetus and in some adult bones, such as the hip (pelvic) bones, ribs, sternum (breastbone), vertebrae (backbones), skull, and ends of the bones of the humerus (arm bone) and femur (thigh bone). In a newborn, all bone marrow is red and is involved in hemopoiesis. With increasing age, much of the bone marrow changes from red to yellow.

• Triglyceride storage. Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells, which store triglycerides. The stored triglycerides are a potential chemical energy reserve.

• Protection: Skeletal system protects and supports body organs and delicate tissues. The ribs protect the heart and lungs, the skull encloses the brain, the vertebrae shield the spinal cord, and the pelvis cradles delicate digestive and reproductive organs.

• Leverage: Many bones of the skeleton function as levers. They change the magnitude and direction of the forces generated by skeletal muscles. The movements produced range from the delicate motion of a fingertip to powerful changes in the position of the entire body.

人体骨骼系统

骨骼系统包括骨骼、软骨、韧带和其他稳定或连接它们的结缔组织。骨骼是骨骼系统的器官，它们不仅仅是肌肉悬挂的架子;它们支撑着你的体重，并与肌肉一起工作，产生可控的、精确的动作。如果没有骨骼框架来连接，收缩的肌肉就会变得又短又胖。我们的肌肉必须拉着骨骼才能使你坐着、站着、走着或跑着。

骨骼是复杂的、动态的器官，包括骨组织、其他结缔组织、平滑肌组织和神经组织。

骨骼有许多重要的功能:

支撑:骨骼系统为整个身体提供结构支撑。单独的骨头或一组骨头为软组织和器官的附着提供了一个框架，肌肉用来引起运动。

矿物质储存:骨骼中的钙盐是一种宝贵的矿物质储备，可维持体液中钙和磷酸盐离子的正常浓度。钙是人体内最丰富的矿物质。一个典型的人体含有1-2公斤(2.2-4.4磅)的钙，其中99%以上在骨骼中。

血细胞生成:在某些骨骼中，一种称为红骨髓的结缔组织产生红细胞、白细胞和血小板，这一过程称为造血。红骨髓由正在发育的血细胞、脂肪细胞、成纤维细胞和巨噬细胞组成，形成网状纤维网络。它存在于胎儿发育中的骨骼和一些成人骨骼中，如髋骨(骨盆骨)、肋骨、胸骨(胸骨)、椎骨(脊骨)、颅骨和肱骨(臂骨)和股骨(大腿骨)的末端。在新生儿中，所有的骨髓都是红色的，参与造血。随着年龄的增长，骨髓的大部分从红色变成黄色。

甘油三酯储存。黄骨髓主要由储存甘油三酯的脂肪细胞组成。储存的甘油三酯是一种潜在的化学能储备。

保护:骨骼系统保护和支持身体器官和脆弱组织。肋骨保护心脏和肺，头骨包围大脑，椎骨保护脊髓，骨盆支撑着精致的消化和生殖器官。

杠杆:骨骼的许多骨骼起杠杆的作用。它们改变了骨骼肌产生的力的大小和方向。所产生的运动范围从指尖的微妙运动到整个身体位置的有力变化。

Bones in human body

The skeleton is divided into two regions:

1. The Axial skeleton and

2. Appendicular skeleton.

The axial skeleton, which forms the central supporting axis of the body, includes:

• the skull,

• auditory ossicles,

• hyoid bone,

• vertebral column, and

• thoracic cage (ribs and sternum).

The appendicular skeleton includes:

• the bones of the upper limb and

• pectoral girdle and the bones of the lower limb and pelvic girdle.

Bones of the Skeletal System

It is often stated that there are 206 bones in the skeleton, but this is only a typical adult count, not an invariable number. At birth there are about 270, and even more bones form during childhood. With age, however, the number decreases as separate bones gradually fuse. For example, each side of a child’s pelvic girdle has three bones—the ilium, ischium, and pubis—but in adults, these are fused into a single hip bone on each side. The fusion of several bones, completed by late adolescence to the mid-20s, brings about the average adult number of 206.

This number varies even among adults. One reason is the development of sesamoid bones—bones that form within some tendons in response to strain. The patella (kneecap) is the largest of these; most of the others are small, rounded bones in such locations as the hands and feet. Another reason for adult variation is that some people have extra bones in the skull called sutural bones.

Figure 1. Human skeleton

Note: Green colored bones are Appendicular skeleton. The rest are Axial skeleton.

人体骨骼

骨架分为两个区域:

轴向骨架和

附属物的骨架。

形成身体中心支撑轴的轴向骨架包括:

头骨,

听觉鼓膜处,

舌骨,

脊柱，以及

胸廓(肋骨和胸骨)。

附肢骨骼包括:

上肢的骨头和

胸带、下肢骨和骨盆带。

骨骼系统的骨骼

人们常说骨骼中有206块骨头，但这只是一个典型的成人数量，而不是一个不变的数字。出生时大约有270块骨头，在儿童时期会形成更多的骨头。然而，随着年龄的增长，随着分离的骨头逐渐融合，数量会减少。例如，儿童骨盆带的每一侧都有3块骨头——髂骨、坐骨和耻骨——但在成人中，这些骨头在每一侧都融合成一块髋骨。几块骨头的融合在青春期后期到25岁左右完成，使成年人的平均数量达到206个。

这个数字甚至在成年人之间也有所不同。其中一个原因是籽骨的发育，籽骨是在一些肌腱中形成的，以应对压力。髌骨(膝盖骨)是其中最大的;其他的大多是手和脚等部位的小而圆的骨头。成人差异的另一个原因是，有些人的头骨中有额外的骨头，称为缝合骨。

图1。人类骨骼

注:绿色为阑尾骨。其余为中轴骨架。